International Journal of Social Science Research (IJSSR)

Sanitation Coverage and Groundwater Dependence in an Open Defecation Free Indian City: Evidence from Varanasi

Urban sanitation programmes in India are typically assessed through indicators of infrastructure provision and toilet usage, while their interaction with groundwater dependence and household water practices receives relatively limited attention. This study examines the relationship between sanitation coverage, groundwater reliance, and household perception of groundwater quality in Varanasi city, an Open Defecation Free urban area under the Swachh Bharat Mission. The analysis is based on primary data from a household survey of 420 households across twelve water supply sub-zones, focusing on sanitation access, drinking water sources, perceived groundwater quality, and water treatment behaviour. The results indicate near-universal sanitation access, with 99.3% of households reporting regular toilet use and negligible open defecation. However, dependence on groundwater remains high, as 63.1% of households rely on private groundwater sources for drinking water. Household perception of groundwater quality is largely favourable, with around 80% of respondents reporting overall satisfaction. At the same time, physical quality concerns particularly seasonal sand intrusion were reported by nearly one-quarter of households. Despite these issues, more than half of the households consume groundwater without any form of treatment, reflecting a reliance on perception rather than precautionary water safety practices. Although this study does not involve laboratory-based groundwater quality testing, existing hydrogeological research has documented nitrate and bacteriological contamination in shallow aquifers of Varanasi, indicating recognised subsurface vulnerability. The findings point to a perception–risk gap in groundwater-dependent ODF cities, where sanitation achievements and improved surface cleanliness may reinforce confidence in groundwater quality despite documented contamination risks. The study highlights the need to integrate sanitation interventions with groundwater monitoring and urban water safety planning to support sustainable public health outcomes.